Introduction
Volleyball is considered one of the most explosive and fast-paced sports. Elite male players have been reported to perform 250 to 300 high-power activities during a 5-game match, and the jumps constitute most of the power events (14 34
The specificity of the responses for each type of neuromuscular recruitment has led to investigations of different characteristics of jumping. Such studies have shown that the elastic properties of the muscle are important factors to determine the vertical jump, and the improvement of this capacity for volleyball athletes has been consistently found in the literature (8,9,15,25 20
The investigation of the relationship between the physical conditioning markers monitored over the course of a macrocycle could be of great importance for optimal construction of the physical and sport-specific conditioning to improve performance (12 4,6,17,28,31
This process could be achieved by assessing the athletes by using the general tests such as squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ), jump anaerobic resistance test (15 seconds) (JAR) (5 30
Methods
Experimental Approach to the Problem
This study used a repeated-measures design to track the adaptations on jump capacity of a group of young elite volleyball players over a macrocycle of preparation aiming to the participation in the world championship. This type of design was similar to that used previously to evaluate the physical fitness and the characteristics of the trained-induced adaptations of volleyball (11,34 1 12 10 −1 ) was monitored (Polar Vantage NV; Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland) through all the training sessions of weeks 1, 9, and 18. On each training session, 6 athletes were chosen by random and used the heart rate monitor. The athlete's participation in the conditioning sessions was split into 5 different types of training, including weight training, endurance training, jump training, anaerobic capacity training (i.e., sprints, shuttles, shuffles, agility, and coordination tasks), and stretching training.
It was hypothesized that the combination of the training loads applied over a consecutive 18-week period (i.e., physical conditioning, technical and tactical practices, and volleyball matches) would optimize and improve the jump capacity of elite volleyball players progressively during the macrocycle, with the best performance being achieved immediately before the world championship. Also, another hypothesis to be tested was whether specific tests would show a better training-induced adaptation when compared to the general tests. This study, therefore, investigated the training-induced adaptations on jump capacity that took place over a macrocycle in one of the world's leading under-19 male volleyball teams. The subjects were evaluated at the first (T1), ninth (T2), and 18th (T3) weeks of training out of a macrocycle of 21 weeks of training.
Subjects
Eleven players of the under-19 male Brazilian volleyball team were submitted to periodic measurements, including standard anthropometry (age, 18.0 ± 0.5 years) and 5 types of vertical jump tests. This study was developed according to the authorization of the Brazilian volleyball confederation and the staff of the national team. This study was in accordance with the State University of Londrina guidelines for the use of human subjects. After being instructed verbally about the measurement procedures and the potential risks of the study, all subjects provided their written informed consent prior to data collection.
Testing Procedures
The data were collected as follows: T1, first week; T2, ninth week; and T3, 18th week of training. All the subjects were assessed on the same day, and the tests were performed in the same order (i.e., anthropometry, SJ, CMJ, JAR, ATL, and BLJ) in the 3 distinct moments. All the subjects were familiarized with the experimental equipment and the testing protocols because they had been tested in previous macrocycles. Measurements were taken always on Monday morning because the athletes had rested during the weekend (i.e., Saturday afternoon and Sunday).
Anthropometric and Skinfold Measures
One of the most important prerequisites of physical fitness and performance is the optimal body dimension, considering that the adaptation to training is manifested by changes in body mass, body build, and body composition. Height was measured in centimeters (±0.1 cm) with a wall stadiometer in conjunction with a right-angled head board with the subjects standing in bare feet. Body mass was determined with a calibrated electronic scale (Filizola, São Paulo, Brazil) to the nearest 0.05 kg. The skinfold thickness was measured 3 times to the nearest 0.1 mm with a Harpender caliper (Cescorf, Porto Alegre, Brazil) at the biceps, triceps, subscapular, suprailiac, abdominal, thigh, and calf sites, as described by Harrison et al (13 7
Jump Capacity
In most sports, the measurements of jump capacity are used as an index of performance status. The SJ and CMJ tests, measured by means of a contact mat connected to a digital timer, are considered reliable for the estimation of the explosive characteristics of the lower limbs (20 5 22,33 19
Attack and block performances for volleyball players depend heavily on the height at which these skills are performed above the net and are determined by not only the capacity of the athlete to raise vertically his center of gravity, but also his stature and standing reach. In this particular case, specific tests would provide a further understanding of the training-induced adaptation. For the ATJ, the standing reach was determined as the maximal distance between the fingertip of the attack hand and the ground, while standing 90° to a wall. The ATJ was measured from a running lead (2- or 3-step approach) by using a basketball backboard marked with lines 1 cm apart with a 1-minute rest interval between them (14,23 21,30
Statistical Analyses
For each moment of the tests, standard statistical parameters (i.e., mean and SD ) were calculated. A repeated-measures analysis of variance was used to incorporate a matrix of unstructured covariance considering the correlation among the repeated observations for the same subject. A Tukey-Kramer post hoc test was used when appropriate. Significance was set at p ≤ 0.05.
Results
Training Loads
The investigated macrocycle had a total of 203 training sessions, 41 friendly matches (34 wins and 7 losses), and 7 official matches at the world championship (7 wins-World Champion) and lasted 21 weeks. The data were collected during the first 18 weeks of training. Training sessions were daily (twice a day) and normally on Wednesday afternoons; Saturday afternoons and Sundays were taken as resting days.
The changes that occurred in the volume of training during the experimental period are presented in Table 1 . From T1 to T2 (i.e., weeks 1-9), the athletes participated in a total of 10,750 minutes (1,194 ± 322 min·wk−1 ) distributed as follows: TT (65.16%, 73 moments, and 8.1 sessions per week), WT (15.02%, 22 moments, and 2.4 sessions per week), CO (14.51%, 30 moments, and 3.3 sessions per week), and MA (5.30%, 6 matches, and 0.7 matches per week). From T2 to T3 (i.e., weeks 10-18), the athletes participated in a total of 8,722 minutes (969 ± 329 min·wk−1 ) distributed as follows: TT (36.94%, 40 moments, and 4.4 sessions per week), WT (21.90%, 25 moments, and 2.8 sessions per week), CO (8.3%, 21 moments, and 2.3 sessions per week), and MA (32.85%, 31 matches, and 3.4 matches per week). When comparing the means of the 2 distinct periods (i.e., weeks 1-9 and weeks 10-18), no significant changes were verified at the total time of training (p = 0.4467). In relation to each type of training, TT and CO had their time significantly reduced (p = 0.0304 and p = 0.0026, respectively). Weight training time increased, but the mean changes were not statistically significant (p = 0.3975). On the other hand, time spent on friendly matches increased significantly (p = 0.0086) in the period between the 10th and 18th weeks.
Table 1: Total and partial time spent at different types of training and match loads for the under-19 volleyball players from weeks 1 to 9 and from weeks 10 to 18.
When taking into account the TT loads, the activities were classified according to the specificities of the volleyball training. From T1 to T2 (i.e., weeks 1-9) and from T2 to T3 (i.e., weeks 10-18), the athletes participated, respectively, in attack (8.83% and 3.51%), block (18.18% and 4.15%), defense (22.67% and 5.74%), setting (1.28% and 0.0%), skills (6.87% and 2.81%), serve/receive (19.49% and 30.62%), attack/defense (1.76% and 8.77%), receive/attack (0.48% and 1.59%), block/defense (0.64% and 1.91%), simulated match (13.73% and 8.93%), and transition drills (5.75% and 32.06%).
The conditioning sessions included the prescription of training loads to improve power, strength, anaerobic capacity (i.e., sprints, shuttles, shuffles, agility, and speed), aerobic endurance, and stretching (i.e., training and injury prevention). The results (Table 2 ) demonstrated that time spent on jump capacity and stretching training was significantly reduced from week 10 to 18 (p = 0.0488 and p = 0.0207, respectively). The mean heart rate monitored for the CO sessions was 148 ± 17.4 b·min−1 (range, 68-195 b·min−1 ). For the TT training sessions, the mean heart rate was 135 ± 20.1 b·min−1 (range, 73-198 b·min−1 ).
Table 2: Total time spent and percentages for two distinct periods of nine weeks of training (weeks 1-9) and (weeks 10-18) according to the different capacities developed in the conditioning sessions for the under-19 volleyball players.
The practices dedicated to WT were composed of basic exercises, such as leg press, leg extension, leg curl, calf raise, half squat, bench press, triceps extension, biceps curl, lat pull, upright roll, and sit-ups. The WT sessions were divided into 3 phases: upper body (phase 1, 2 × 15 repetitions; phase 2, 2 × 12 repetitions; and phase 3, 2 × 10 repetitions) and lower body (phase 1, 3 × 15 repetitions; phase 2, 3 × 12 repetitions; and phase 3, 3 × 10 repetitions). During this period, there was no 1 repetition maximum test. The loads for the weight training were adjusted between 4 and 6 weeks, according to the program prepared by the coaches considering the achievement of the goals established for each athlete throughout the macrocycle. The average intensity for weight training sessions monitored by heart rate was 109 ± 8.0 b·min−1 (range, 53-169 b·min−1 ).
There were small changes in height, body mass, body mass index, %BF, free fatty mass, and sum of 7 skinfolds during the experimental period of 18 weeks, but none of them were statistically significant (Table 3 ).
Table 3: Anthropometric characteristics for the under-19 volleyball players at the beginning of the preparatory period (T1), after 9 weeks of training (T2), and after 18 weeks of training (T3).
The results of the 5 tests are presented in Table 4 . There were no significant gains in the performance of SJ (3.9%) or CMJ (2.3%) during the 3 moments the subjects were assessed. The JAR test demonstrated positive and significant adaptation, but only between T2 and T3 (9.6%). The results also showed significant improvement in the ATJ and BLJ, mainly between T1 and T2 (ATJ, 2.5%; BLJ, 3.3%) and T1 and T3 (ATJ, 3.0%; BLJ, 3.5%). There were no statistical differences between T2 and T3 for both specific jump tests, showing that the most important training-induced adaptations occurred between the first and ninth weeks.
Table 4: Values for the training-induced adaptations on jump capacity of the under-19 volleyball players at the beginning of the preparatory period (T1), after 9 weeks of training (T2), and after 18 weeks of training (T3).
Figure 1 shows the profile plots of the measured variables for each subject and identifies the individual pattern of training-induced adaptation. It was possible to verify that the performance in some tests was not homogeneous, and some subjects presented a decrease of performance among the tests during the macrocycle, mainly in the SJ, CMJ, and JAR tests.
Figure 1: Profile plots of the measured variables during the 3 moments of testing.
Discussion
This study investigated the training-induced adaptations on jump capacity of the under-19 male Brazilian national volleyball team. It was hypothesized that the combination of the training loads applied over a consecutive 18-week period would optimize and progressively improve the jump capacity of elite volleyball players throughout the macrocycle. Also, specific tests would show a better training induced-adaptation than general tests. The primary findings demonstrated that the training loads applied did not induce significant adaptations on the anthropometric and body composition variables (i.e., height, body mass, body mass index, sum of 7 skinfolds, %BF, and free fatty mass). Although these variables are likely to be changed by the training process and just small changes were observed, it is suggested that the subjects have begun the macrocycle in such a condition that the combination of the applied loads could not induce significant adaptations over an 18-week period considering that the characteristics of the volleyball training (i.e., volume and intensity) were not sufficient to stimulate the mechanisms associated with modification in the body composition in this group of elite athletes. Also, the values of these anthropometric and body composition variables presented in this study were similar to others in the literature for elite volleyball players at this age (7
Training-induced adaptations reflect the combination of the loads applied, such as the amount and quality of work achieved in TT, WT, CO, and MA, always in accordance with each individual's needs. In relation to the training volume, this study demonstrated that it decreased from weeks 1 to 9 to weeks 10 to 18 for all types of training, except the time spent on WT and MA. The first 9 weeks were mostly devoted to TT training aiming to the development of the specific skills of volleyball, while WT and CO completed the loads applied and just a short time was spent on MA. Regardless of the specifics of volleyball, the main objective of this period was to improve the athlete's general working capacity (i.e., specific skills and conditioning) in order to prepare him for the future demands of training in the following weeks (4
During the period between the 10th and 18th weeks of training, the main objective was to provide specific experience to the young group of athletes playing as many matches as possible (31 matches), most of them at the international level trying to mimic the level of competition that would be faced in the world championship. It is important to mention that time spent on MA increased significantly to 32.8% of the total amount of the training loads. Considering that all types of CO were also reduced in this period, it is suggested that the WT and the increase of MA time was beneficial for the maintenance and improvement of muscle power output, mainly in the muscle groups involved in the absolute jumping power (12 10,12 4
Related to the general tests for evaluating the jump capacity, SJ and CMJ had positive training-induced adaptations, but the mean differences were not significant and these results were according to similar studies (10-12). Bobbert and Van Soest (3 16 32 29,33
Compared to the literature, the subjects' performances for SJ and CMJ were superior or similar but not inferior to other volleyball players (7,18,23 7
Despite the variability in the values of the JAR test observed throughout the 3 evaluations, the most significant results occurred between T2 and T3. At this moment of the macrocycle, the greatest amount of time was spent on MA and TT training, suggesting that the loads applied promoted training-induced adaptations in the metabolic and neuromuscular systems as the subjects were stimulated during high-intensity and short-term effort, which characterizes volleyball. Thus, the JAR test seems to be an important tool to evaluate athletes from sports whose explosive power is determinant for performance. The absolute mean of the height for the rebound jumps (T3) was superior to 35.3 ± 3.6 cm presented for a group of under-19 Italian athletes and close to 39.3 ± 4.6 cm reported for adult Italian athletes (7
The current study demonstrated that at the moment of T3, the performance in the ATJ was lower than the values reported for the best adult athletes of the Italian championship (348.0 ± 20.9 cm (range, 342.0-368.0 cm)) and lower than the attack difference (i.e., height of attack jump minus standing reach) (91.8 ± 8.4 cm (range, 74-110 cm)) for the same group (9 26,27 7
The BLJ test and the respective block difference (i.e., height of block jump minus standing reach) revealed a significant and positive training-induced adaptation with a net increase in 11.6 cm for both variables between the moments of T1 and T3. The means of T3 for the BLJ and BLD were higher than the values found in another group of elite under-19 Brazilian athletes (26,27
The greatest gains for ATJ and BLJ occurred during the first 9 weeks of training, when 27.11% of the TT was specifically dedicated to attack and block training and CO and WT accounted for 29.53%, which altogether may have influenced the better performance observed between T1 and T2. After this period, there were no significant improvements, maybe due to the reduction of CO and specific training for attack and blocking in spite of the maintenance of the WT volume. From weeks 10 to 18, the main objective of the team was to play as many matches as possible and TT training emphasized at most the combination of technical and tactical aspects of the game by the use of transition drills and the combination of serve and receive. It is suggested that during this period, the subjects had already reached their best performance, and they were close to their maximal potential in these 2 variables considering this specific macrocycle. In this case, it seems that the training loads were sufficient to maintain the acquired adaptations, which must have been kept until the competitive period.
Based on these data, it is suggested that the training-induced adaptations in these 2 types of specific tests occurred due to the characteristics of the loads applied (i.e., WT and CO sessions) as well as the drills (i.e., service, attack, and block) and matches during all the phases of the macrocycle that altogether must have contributed to the improvement of the performance in such a specific type of test, mainly during the first 9 weeks of training. The interaction of the different types of training shows the multidisciplinary nature that influences the performance on the vertical jumps. This could be related to the use of mixed training methods, which seem to be more efficient in the development of the many components that influence the jump capacity (24 2
The current findings demonstrated that among the 5 tests, the most significant adaptations were seen in ATJ and BLJ. This evolution may have occurred due to either the greater capacity of the subject to produce power and strength at the concentric phase of the specific jumps or the increase of the rate of force development and possible improvement of the stretch-shortening cycle (24 18 16 15
According to the results, it seems that the specific tests for ATJ and BLJ must be included in test batteries elaborated to evaluate training-induced adaptations for volleyball athletes since they seemed to be more sensitive to the training loads applied during the macrocycle. Additionally, the investigated sample, even with just a few years of systematic training, demonstrated great capacity to adapt mainly on the specific jump tests.
When comparing the results of this study to the literature, the performance of the subjects in all tests was excellent, although the training-induced adaptations for some subjects were not totally progressive as hypothesized, showing that there was a large variability in response to the training loads applied during the preparation for the world championship, mainly for the SJ and CMJ tests. Thus, elite volleyball athletes must be frequently monitored since their responses can vary largely during systematic training, and in order to optimize performance, the athletes must be frequently assessed and training loads must be adjusted according to the individual needs, even in a team sport such as volleyball. Besides, the influence of quantitative assessments of different training and competition modes on the training-induced adaptation on jump capacity still needs a more appropriate method to analyze this process, aiming to correlate the loads applied with the performance level on each variable measured in a macrocycle.
Practical Applications
The jump capacity is one of the key points for the performance during volleyball matches and can be developed with proper training. In order to verify the training-induced adaptations on the jump capacity, the training programs must include periodic assessment of this variable. In this study, jump capacity was evaluated by general and specific tests. Conclusions about the assessment of jump capacity over 18 weeks are as follows: The SJ and CMJ measured with a contact mat are a very popular tool to evaluate jump capacity. During this experiment, these tests did not demonstrate significant training-induced adaptations despite their recommendation and large use in similar studies. Thus, it is suggested that these tests could be used again in future studies considering the many variables involved in their execution and the characteristics of different samples composed of volleyball players. Hence, for the professionals involved in testing volleyball athletes, it is suggested that they use the attack and block tests since they seem to be more sensitive to the training-induced adaptations and better reflect the specificity of the game. These results, when obtained periodically, would be an important tool to influence the prescription of the training, readjusting the loads individually and, consequently, enhancing and optimizing the performance of the jump capacity of elite volleyball athletes. Training loads must be quantified frequently as the time spent on volumes and intensities in order to better understand the effects of periodized training on the enhancement and not the physical performance of elite volleyball players.
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