1Critical Care and Perioperative Population Health Research (CAPER) Unit, Department of Anesthesiology (T.O., K.R., M.F., E.A.J., R.R.B., and V.K.), and Departments of Biostatistics and Clinical Outcomes (M.F.), Orthopaedic Surgery (M.E.H.), and Population Health Sciences (M.E.H. and V.K.), Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina
2Patient Safety Center of Inquiry, Durham VA Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina
3School of Social Work, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina
4Institute for Healthcare Delivery and Population Science, and Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School-Baystate, Springfield, Massachusetts
5Department of Quantitative Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts
aEmail address for T. Ohnuma: [email protected]
Investigation performed at Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina
Disclosure: Dr. Ellis received consulting fees from the Institute for Medical Research, Durham, North Carolina, for this work. On the Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest forms, which are provided with the online version of the article, one or more of the authors checked “yes” to indicate that the author had a relevant financial relationship in the biomedical arena outside the submitted work (https://links.lww.com/JBJS/G357).