From the aDepartment of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
bCarolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
cDepartment of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
dDepartment of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA
eDepartment of Pediatrics, Division of Genetics and Metabolism, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
fDepartment of Epidemiology, College of Public Health, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA
gDivision of Birth Defects and Infant Disorders, National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA
hEagle Global Scientific LLC, San Antonio, TX
iDivision of Medical Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT
jBureau of Environmental and Occupational Epidemiology, Center for Environmental Health, New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY
kDepartment of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University at Albany, Rensselaer, NY
lDepartment of Epidemiology, Fay W. Boozman College of Public Health, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR
mArkansas Center for Birth Defects Research and Prevention, Fay W. Boozman College of Public Health, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Risk, AR
nBirth Defects Epidemiology and Surveillance Branch, Texas Department of State Health Services, Austin, TX
oDepartment of Epidemiology, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA.
Submitted August 10, 2022; accepted March 24, 2023
This work was supported by a cooperative agreement from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC; U50CCU422096) to the North Carolina Center for Birth Defects Research and Prevention and through cooperative agreements under PA 96043, PA 02081, and FOA DD09-001 from the CDC to other Centers for Birth Defects Research and Prevention participating in the National Birth Defects Prevention Study. This work was also supported in part by an institutional training grant from the National Institute of Child Health and Development (T32 HD 52468).
The authors report no conflicts of interest.
The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
The process for accessing the data used in this analysis is described here: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/nbdps-public-access-procedures.html. Computing code may be requested from the corresponding author.
Supplemental digital content is available through direct URL citations in the HTML and PDF versions of this article (www.epidem.com).
Correspondence: Dayna T. Neo, Department of Epidemiology, 135 Dauer Drive 2102 McGavran-Greenberg Hall, CB #7435 Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7435. Email: [email protected].
