Introduction
Female sex workers and their male clients play important roles as core and bridging populations in the epidemiology of sexually transmitted infections (STI) and HIV even in countries with generalized HIV epidemics.
Since the 1990s, studies have reported the impact of a variety of targeted HIV/STI prevention and care interventions on STI and HIV rates among sex workers in sub-Saharan Africa. Behavioural interventions provided access to free condoms, information on HIV/STI and group or individual counselling on risk reduction [1–7] [4,5] [1,4–6] [3,7] [1,2,4,8] [3,7] [3]
In Tanzania, high rates of HIV and STI have been reported among women working in bars, restaurants and guesthouses (female barworkers) in trading centres situated along major transit routes [9–11]
Methods
A total of 600 female barworkers, aged 18–35 years, were recruited at 14 trading centres and towns along the highways in Mbeya Region in late 2000 and followed up at 3-monthly intervals for 27 months. Recruitment procedures and eligibility criteria have been described previously [11] Trichomonas vaginalis (metronidazole) and Candida albicans (clotrimazole). Venous blood samples and genital swabs were taken for laboratory screening for HIV/STI. Data on sociodemographic and behavioural characteristics were collected through structured interviews. Participants were offered voluntary HIV counselling and testing, health education and free condoms.
Laboratory methods
Trichomonas vaginalis (TV) and Candida albicans (CA) infections were diagnosed by culture (InPouch TV; Biomed Diagnostics, USA) at recruitment and by wet preparation microscopy at subsequent examinations. Bacterial vaginosis was diagnosed using the Nugent method [12] Treponema pallidum (TP), Haemophilus ducreyi (HD) and Herpes simplex virus (HSV). All cervical swabs collected at baseline plus a 30% random sample at alternate follow-up examinations were tested for Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) and Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG) by PCR (Roche Diagnostics, USA). HSV-2 serology was assessed by enzyme immunoassay (EIA) (Kalon, UK), and syphilis serology by the Serodia-Treponema pallidum particle agglutination assay (TPPA) (Fujirebio Inc., Japan) and the rapid plasma reagin (RPR) test (VD25; Murex Diagnostics, UK). All sera underwent dual testing for HIV (Enzygnost Anti HIV1/2 Plus; Behring, Marberg, Germany; Determine HIV 1/2; Abbott, Germany). Discordant results were resolved by western blot (Genelabs Diagnostics, Switzerland).
Statistical analysis
Time trends in the prevalence of curable STI/RTI were evaluated using random effects logistic regression taking account of correlations between repeated measurements on individual women to obtain odds ratios (ORtrend ) corresponding to the change from one 3-monthly examination to the next. To assess whether trends were explained by changes in sociodemographic or behavioural factors, crude odds ratios were compared with odds ratios adjusted in turn for each of these factors. Data from rounds 7 and 9 were excluded from this analysis because different study instruments were used to collect behavioural data during these rounds.
The incidence of HIV and HSV-2 was determined using the time at risk from the date of entry into the cohort until seroconversion (assumed midpoint between examinations) or last examination. Associations of other STI/RTI and of sociodemographic, behavioural and biological characteristics (measured at the visit prior to seroconversion) with incident HIV and HSV-2 were assessed using conditional logistic regression, conditioning on examination round. The final models included all variables significantly associated with incident HIV or HSV-2 at the 10% significance level.
Results
Changes in sociodemographic characteristics and sexual behaviours over time
The baseline characteristics of the 600 women recruited initially and the 153 women recruited thereafter did not differ. The mean age was 25.5 years (range, 16–39 years). The proportion of participants reporting sex with a permanent partner remained stable at around 85% over time. Reported sex with casual partners within the last 4 weeks fluctuated between 27 and 38% at different rounds. Consistent condom use with casual partners during the last 4 weeks was reported by 33% of women initially, rising to 75% after post-HIV-test counselling in the second and third examination round, and falling to around 45% at 6 months thereafter. Initially 26% of women reported condom use during most recent sex with their permanent partner but in subsequent rounds this proportion varied between 5 and 14%.
Trends in STI prevalence over time
The prevalence of clinical STI/RTI signs and laboratory confirmed bacterial infections decreased over time for all STI/RTI with the exception of bacterial vaginosis (Table 1 ). In contrast, the prevalence of outcomes associated with viral STI, including genital warts and genital herpes did not decline.
Table 1: Prevalence trends of sexually transmitted infections (STI)/RTI over ten examination rounds.
Although HIV status and several sociodemographic and behavioural characteristics were associated with current infection with one or more of these STI [11]
Prevalence and sero-incidence of HIV, HSV-2 and syphilis
Baseline HIV prevalence was 67% and was higher among participants who were lost to follow-up: 84.3% of 153 women lost to follow-up were HIV infected compared with 62.5% of 600 participants remaining in the study throughout (P < 0.001).
Incidence was determined for the entire period of 27 months and three consecutive time intervals of 9 months. Intervals were defined: (1) according to calendar period; and (2) according to individual follow-up time. HIV incidence declined significantly from 13.9/100 person-years in the first 9-months calendar period to 5.0/100 person-years in the last period (Table 2 ). The decline in incidence was similar when periods of individual follow-up time were compared: HIV incidence decreased from 13.2/100 to 6.1/100 person-years.
Table 2: Incidence rate (IR) of HIV and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) seroconversion and associated risk factors.
HSV-2 incidence was 17.3/100 person-years and there was no recognizable trend over consecutive periods of calendar time (Table 2 ). TPPA seroconversions decreased from 2.3/100 person-years during the first 9 months to 0.9 per 100 person-years during the last 9 months, although this decrease was not statistically significant (data not shown).
Risk factors for HIV and/or HSV-2 acquisition
In multivariate analysis incident HIV was significantly associated with genital ulcers and with positive syphilis serology (Table 2 ). Neither the presence of herpetic lesions (data not shown), nor HSV-2 seropositivity, nor the presence of other STI was associated with a significantly increased risk of HIV acquisition. Two socio-behavioural variables were significantly associated with incident HIV and thus included in the final multivariate model: the time that participants had worked as barworkers (higher risk in those recently joining profession) and whether they reported exchange of sex for money during the past 3 months.
The risk of HSV-2 seroconversion was increased in HIV-infected participants in multivariate analysis. Incident HSV-2 was also associated with change of residence during the year before enrolment and work in a traditional bar (Table 2 ).
Discussion
The prevalence of HIV at enrolment was very high. In comparison, rates among antenatal care attendees in Mbeya Region were significantly lower (21.7% in Mbeya town and 17.4% in roadside settlements [13] [14,15]
The decrease in bacterial STI in the presence of regular STI screening and treatment in Mbeya is consistent with other studies evaluating similar interventions in sex workers in Ivory Coast, Senegal, South Africa and Kenya [3,6,7,16]
HIV incidence was very high at 10/100 person-years but declined from 14 to 5/100 person-years during the study. Declines in HIV incidence among cohorts of high-risk populations have been reported previously and possible reasons included greater loss to follow-up in subgroups at high HIV risk [17] [4] [4] [18]
Few biological and behavioural characteristics were identified as risk factors for incident HIV. Having had a genital ulcer around the probable time of HIV infection increased the risk four-fold and positive syphilis serology increased it two-fold. This is in line with observations from several other studies examining the association between genital ulcers and HIV [19]
Bacterial vaginosis was associated with prevalent but not with incident HIV in our study suggesting that HIV infection may predispose to bacterial vaginosis (rather than vice versa), as previously concluded in a study of HIV-positive women in Thailand [20]
In contrast to findings from several other studies [21]
In summary, a simple intervention consisting of regular 3-monthly STI/RTI screening and syndromic management in combination with HIV voluntary testing and counselling and HIV/STI information was well accepted by this cohort of barworkers and it is likely that it resulted in a decline in STI prevalence. The observed decline in HIV incidence may have been due partly to selective dropout of women with high-risk behaviours among the HIV-positive women.
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