INTRODUCTION: REPETITION TEMPO AND TIME UNDER TENSION
When designing resistance training (RT) programs, fitness professionals provide overload to their clients by systematically manipulating several training variables such as external load, repetition range, volume, frequency, rest periods, exercise selection, order of exercises, and velocity of muscle actions (1). The latter variable is known as repetition tempo (2), which also has been characterized as repetition duration (3). For example, if a lifter performs a 2-second eccentric phase followed by a 1-second concentric phase, this would be written as a 2/1-second tempo or a 3-second duration. Researchers also may consider intentional pauses between repetitions and muscle actions when describing their repetition tempos (4). Returning to the previous example, if the lifter does not pause between repetitions (0 seconds), but executes a 1-second pause between the eccentric and concentric phases, the repetition tempo would be written as 2/1/1/0 seconds, and the duration would now be 4 seconds. Regardless of how repetition tempo is written and described, it is often discussed with the number of repetitions completed per set because both variables have a direct effect on set duration, which is commonly referred to as time under tension (TUT) (2).
Assuming that sets are performed close to momentary muscular failure, it is now agreed on that hypertrophy occurs at a wide range of repetitions per set (3–35 reps) with corresponding relative external loads (30%–90% 1-repetition maximum [1-RM]) (5). Said differently, and assuming the previously referenced 2/1-second tempo, hypertrophy occurs along a spectrum of TUT that spans 9 to 105 seconds (5). Because there is a wide range of effective repetitions per set, relative external loads, and TUT, practitioners and researchers seek to understand the unique benefits that stem from training at either end of these spectrums. Although exceptions exist (6), it is commonly reported that lower load, higher TUT training (<50% 1-RM) is more effective for increasing local muscular endurance, whereas higher load, lower TUT training (>80% 1-RM) is more effective for increasing muscular strength (5). The influence of external load and TUT on specific adaptations to RT are well researched and understood by fitness professionals, but the independent effect of repetition tempos on such adaptations are not as commonly known. Hence, the primary objective of this feature article is to establish evidenced-based recommendations for effective repetition tempos that stimulate hypertrophy, strength, and power for general population clients. We also will provide insight for prescribing safe and effective repetition tempos for older clients and patients with cardiovascular disease (CVD).
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GOAL-ORIENTED REPETITION TEMPOS FOR GENERAL POPULATION CLIENTS
Training for Hypertrophy
Skeletal muscle hypertrophy, which is generally referred to as increased muscle mass, is a common training goal for exercise enthusiasts (4,5). A meta-analysis of eight studies by Schoenfeld et al. (3) indicated that when sets are performed close to momentary muscular failure, a repetition duration of 0.5 to 8 seconds is highly effective for increasing muscular hypertrophy. The authors noted that more data are needed to provide recommendations outside of this range, but the available evidence suggests that performing superslow repetitions (>10 seconds) may be less effective for hypertrophy (3). Considering this information with the previously mentioned effective range of TUT (9–105 seconds) and repetitions (3–35 reps), personal trainers can use a variety of tempos within the effective repetition duration range of 0.5 to 8 seconds.
To further illustrate this point, let's consider specific examples from the literature. For instance, in a 7-week study, Kojic et al. (7) recently demonstrated that 1/1- and 4/1-second tempos were equally effective for increasing muscle thickness when lifters completed 3 to 4 sets to failure with 60% to 70% 1-RM. After a 12-week training intervention, Sampson and Groeller (8) also reported that X/X- (i.e., “X” denotes maximal speed), 2/X-, and 2/2-second tempos led to similar hypertrophy when lifters performed 4 sets of 4 to 6 reps with 85% 1-RM. In a similar manner, Tanimoto et al. (9) reported that 13 weeks of training with slow/tonic (3/3 seconds; 3 sets; 55%–60% 1-RM) and normal (1/1 second; 3 sets; 80%–90% 1-RM) tempos both resulted in significant hypertrophy with no differences between conditions. Together, these studies indicate that fitness professionals have several options for relative intensity and repetition tempos when designing hypertrophy-based training blocks for their clients (see Table). As demonstrated in Sidebar 1, repetition tempos can be rotated on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis to provide a periodized form of overload, which will keep the program interesting for the client.
TABLE -
Summary of Training Variable Recommendations for Specific Training Outcomes
| Training Goal |
Repetition Duration |
Relative Intensity |
Repetition Range |
| Hypertrophy |
0.5–8 seconds |
30%–90% 1-RM |
3–35 per set |
| Strength |
<1–20 seconds |
50%–90% 1-RM |
3–20 per set |
| Power |
2–4 seconds |
60%–80% 1-RM |
2–8 per set |
| Power and functional performance in older adults |
3–4 seconds |
30%–60% 1-RM |
6–10 per set |
| Strength in clients with CVD |
2–3 seconds |
60%–75% 1-RM |
8–10 per set |
Training for Strength
In addition to hypertrophy, lifters tend to use RT as a tool to increase their muscular strength (i.e., maximal force production), which is most commonly measured as 1-RM for any particular exercise (4,5,15). Considering repetition tempos that increase muscular strength, a meta-analysis of 15 studies by Davies et al. (15) concluded that fast (<2 seconds), moderate (2–4 seconds), and slow (>4 seconds) repetition durations were each effective, and there were no statistically significant differences between them. When external load was considered, further statistical analysis indicated that fast repetitions with moderate external loads (60%–79% 1-RM) was the best combination for increasing muscular strength (15). This relationship between tempo and external load can be explained by the force-velocity curve because muscular power is typically maximized when a moderate load is lifted with maximal intent during the concentric phase of motion (16).
Sidebar 1: Case Studies
- 1. A general population, 25-year-old client who has been lifting for 7 years and whose goal is to increase hypertrophy, strength, and power through time. Assuming that he or she is planning to lift 3 days/week, we can choose to vary tempo daily, weekly, or within blocks of training.
| Monday |
Wednesday |
Friday |
Hypertrophy focused
3/3 seconds |
Strength focused
2/1 seconds |
Power focused
2/X seconds |
| Week 1 |
Week 2 |
Week 3 |
Hypertrophy focused
4/1 seconds |
Strength focused
2/2 seconds |
Power focused
3/X seconds |
| Block 1, weeks 1–4 |
Block 2, weeks 5–8 |
Block 3, weeks 9–10 |
Hypertrophy focused
Cycle 1/1, 2/1, and
4/1 seconds |
Strength focused
Cycle 1/1, 2/2,
and 4/2 seconds |
Power focused
Cycle X/X, 2/X,
and 3/X seconds |
- 2. A 75-year-old but otherwise healthy client who has not lifted weights for 10 years, whose goal is to use RT as a tool to increase his or her power and ability to perform activities of daily living (ADL). By calling the research of Balachandran et al. (10) and Ramirez-Campillo et al. (11) to mind, we know that 3/3, 2/1, and 2/X seconds are all effective for strength, power, and functional task performance. It would be tempting to jump straight to the fastest tempo (2/X seconds), but considering that the lifter has not performed RT in 10 years, it may be worth using the slower tempos (3/3 and 2/1 seconds) for 4 to 6 weeks before progressing them to the 2/X-second tempo that may transfer best to ADL.
- 3. A 45-year-old patient who has hypertension and dyslipidemia. For this scenario, we should consider the collective findings of Lamotte et al. (12) and Machado et al. (13), in which nonfailure sets performed with faster tempos result in lower hemodynamic and cardiovascular responses. To start with lighter loads, we can have this client perform 3 to 4 sets of 8 repetitions with 60% 1-RM and a 2/X-second tempo (12). After a few weeks, he or she can be progressed to perform 3 to 4 sets with 75% 1-RM and a 1/1-second tempo (13). The keys to training clinical population patients are to keep TUT low (~20–30 seconds) and to terminate sets well before muscular failure (rating of perceived exertion [RPE] = 11–13 of 20) (14).
Similar to muscular hypertrophy, the data from Davies et al. (15) suggest that a wide range of tempos will increase muscular strength. As evidence for this claim, each of the previously described tempos (X/X [maximal speed of eccentric and concentric actions], 1/1, 2/X, 2/2, 4/1, and 3/3 seconds) that led to significant increases in hypertrophy also led to significant increases in muscular strength (7–9). However, unlike hypertrophy, there is evidence that superslow tempos (>10 seconds) are quite effective for increasing muscular strength. For example, in a 10-week study, Westcott et al. (17) reported that regular speed (4/1/2/0 seconds; 1 set; 8–12 reps) and superslow (4/0/10/0 seconds; 1 set; 4–6 reps) both led to significant increases in muscular strength, but the latter technique was most effective. In a similar manner, Carlson et al. (18) recently demonstrated that 1 set to failure with a 10/10-second tempo and a 10-RM load led to significant increases in muscular strength after 10 weeks of training. Synthesizing the results from the literature, muscular strength can be improved with repetition durations that range from less than 1 to 20 seconds, and we encourage fitness professionals to use a variety of tempos (Sidebar 1).
Training for Power
Muscular power, the product of force × velocity, refers to the ability to produce a large amount of force in a short amount of time (16). To understand the effect of repetition tempo on power, we should first highlight the isolated, acute effects of the eccentric phase, concentric phase, and transition phase that occur between them (i.e., amortization phase) (19). Considering eccentric durations, Wilk et al. (20) demonstrated that compared with moderate eccentric contractions (2 seconds), slower eccentric contractions (6 seconds) led to significantly lower barbell velocity and power during 1-RM bench press attempts. Pertaining to concentric durations, Sampson et al. (16) reported that rapid concentric contractions (2/X seconds) led to significantly greater force, power, and muscle activation than smooth concentric contractions (2/2 seconds). For the amortization phase, McCarthy et al. (14) concluded that compared with transitioning as fast as possible, pausing for 4 seconds between the eccentric and concentric contractions diminished acceleration, power, and velocity during the concentric phase of a leg press. Thus, to maximize acute power production during one repetition, these data collectively suggest using moderate eccentric durations (~2 seconds), rapid concentric durations (X seconds), and to minimize the transition between them (i.e., no pause).
Sidebar 2: How do TUT and Tempo Influence Cardiovascular Stress?
Original research in this area demonstrated that slower tempos stimulated greater increases in HR, ventilation, oxygen consumption, energy expenditure, local hypoxia, blood lactate, and “anabolic” hormone concentration (2). However, a common confounding variable among these studies is that researchers did not match TUT and/or proximity to muscular failure (i.e., effort). Consider the following example:
- - Slow = 5 × 10 reps, 50% 1-RM, 4/0/2/0-second tempo.
- - Fast = 5 × 10 reps, 50% 1-RM, 2/0/1/0-second tempo.
Here, relative intensity and repetition volume are matched, but TUT is two times as high during the “Slow” condition (60 vs. 30 seconds), which will result in greater physiological stress because the sets are simply more difficult and are performed closer to failure (2). Interestingly, when TUT and effort are matched, the opposite effect is observed because HR, blood lactate, oxygen consumption, and energy expenditure are greater when repetition tempos are faster (2). Let's make a minor adjustment to the previous example:
- - Slow = 5 × 10 reps, 50% 1-RM, 4/0/2/0-second tempo.
- - Fast = 5 × 20 reps, 50% 1-RM, 2/0/1/0-second tempo.
Although repetition volume is two times greater during the “Fast” condition, this allows TUT to be matched (60 seconds), and proximity to muscular failure will be much more similar between conditions. There are many possible explanations for why faster repetitions stimulate greater cardiorespiratory stress, but we speculate that the more frequent and forceful contractions result in a greater pressor response and feedback from the group 3/4 afferent neurons (2).
Considering longitudinal evidence, Gonzales-Badillo et al. (21) compared the effect of bench pressing with maximal speed (2/X seconds) or controlled contractions (2/1 seconds) in moderately trained lifters. Besides repetition tempo, every training variable was matched between groups including volume (3–4 sets, 2–8 reps), relative external loads (60%–80% 1-RM), rest intervals (180 seconds), and frequency (3 days/week). After 6 weeks of training, data indicated that both groups significantly improved their muscular power, as indicated by increased velocity production while lifting light and heavy loads (21). The clear take-home message from Gonzales-Badillo et al. (21) is that 2/1 and 2/X seconds are both effective for long-term power development, but the latter is likely the superior option. For those who prefer to train with slower concentric tempos, it is also worth noting that Mike et al. (22) reported that a 2/2-second tempo was effective for increasing lower body power, as measured by an increase in vertical jump height. In the interest of practicality, it may be simplest to cue your client to perform the eccentric phase of motion in a “controlled” manner before completing the concentric phase with “maximal intent” because this type of tempo has increased several markers of muscular power (23).
CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE OLDER LIFTER
Although muscle mass and strength decrease with age, muscular power decreases at a significantly faster rate (10,11). In fact, decreases in muscular power are associated with decreased physical function, decreased performance of ADLs, and increased fall risk (10,11). Thus, fitness professionals may wonder if repetition tempo plays a role in strength and power development as well as functional task performance for their older clients. To answer this question, a recent meta-analysis of 20 clinical trials compared the effect of performing concentric contractions at a comfortable speed (i.e., approximately 1 second) versus as rapidly as possible (i.e., denoted as “X”) (10). Data revealed that both tempos were effective for increasing muscle mass, strength, power, and physical function. Importantly, the rapid, maximal intent concentric contractions were superior to the approximately 1-second concentric contractions for power and physical function (10). Considering the principle of specificity, these outcomes are not surprising because most ADLs are performed with a great degree of effort and speed such as walking briskly across the street or quickly extending one's arm to grab a surface to break a potential fall.
A recent meta-analysis of 20 clinical trials compared the effect of performing concentric contractions at a comfortable speed (i.e., approximately 1 second) versus as rapidly as possible (i.e., denoted as “X”) (10). Data revealed that both tempos were effective for increasing muscle mass, strength, power, and physical function. Importantly, the rapid, maximal intent concentric contractions were superior to the approximately 1-second concentric contractions for power and physical function (10). Considering the principle of specificity, these outcomes are not surprising because most ADLs are performed with a great degree of effort and speed such as walking briskly across the street or quickly extending one's arm to grab a surface to break a potential fall.
To provide a more specific example of different repetition tempos from the literature, Ramirez-Campillo et al. (11) previously conducted a randomized-controlled trial to compare the effect of training with maximal intent (3/X seconds) or slow concentric contractions (3/3 seconds) in older female lifters (aged 66–68 years). Volunteers performed total-body training 3 days/week for 12 weeks, and data indicated that rapid and slow concentric contractions were both effective for improving strength, power, and functional task performance (11). However, further statistical analysis suggested that the 3/X-second tempo had a significantly greater effect on power and functional task performance (11). As previously mentioned, we speculate that rapid concentric contractions had greater transferability to functional task performance because they resemble the speed at which most ADLs take place. Applying theory to practice, both training styles should be included in a well-rounded RT program for older clients. For example, one could alternate “slow” and “fast” days in the gym, or the fitness professional can organize a periodized training block so that the slower tempos are used earlier in the program and faster tempos are used in a later block. However, when one is training an older client who simply wants to use what is most effective and efficient, the 3/X-second tempo may be the best option.
CONSIDERATIONS FOR CLIENTS WITH CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
As discussed by Kirkman et al. (24), physical activity has been an essential tenet of cardiac rehabilitation (CR) since the 1940s, and most of the research/application in this area has centered around aerobic exercise modalities. More recently, the scope of CR has shifted to combine RT with aerobic exercise to have more well-rounded programs for recovery from, and prevention of, cardiovascular episodes (24). The inclusion of RT with a CR program is logical because most patients in CR present with significant decrements in muscle mass and strength, and RT is the most potent form of exercise to increase both (24). In addition to hypertrophy and strength, RT may improve functional capacity in the CR population by stimulating peripheral aerobic adaptations to exercise, such as increased capillary and mitochondrial density (i.e., more/bigger mitochondria), which will increase the arterial-venous oxygen difference (i.e., extraction of oxygen at the working muscle) (24). Considering the CR population, there is evidence that the combination of RT with traditional aerobic exercise leads to improved exercise capacity, peak oxygen consumption, muscular strength, body composition, endothelial cell function, and cardiac autonomic regulation (14). Because of these positive outcomes, ACSM has published recommendations for RT for patients in CR programs: RPE of 11 to 13, 1 to 3 sets of 10 to 15 reps at 40% to 60% 1-RM, and 8 to 10 exercises that target every major muscle group (24).
When identifying the ideal training variables for the clinical population, most research has focused on the acute hemodynamic responses to bouts of strength training to ensure client and patient safety (12). Specific to safe and effective repetition tempos for the clinical population, it is commonly reported that fast is better than moderate or slow (12,13,24). For example, in a population of patients with coronary disease, Lamotte et al. (12) reported that when volume (3 sets, 10 reps) and relative intensity (75% 1-RM) were matched, slow repetitions (2/2/2/0 seconds) led to greater heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP), and cardiac output compared with fast repetitions (1/0/1/0 seconds). In a more recent study, Machado et al. (13) also discovered that fast tempos (2/X seconds) resulted in lower systolic BP than moderate tempos (2/2 seconds) when volume (4 sets, 8 reps) and relative intensity (60% 1-RM) were matched in a hypertensive population. The collective conclusion from these studies is that faster tempos (e.g., 2/X or 1/0/1/0 seconds) are the safest option for patients with various forms of CVD or for those who are currently in CR. As discussed in Sidebar 2, future research should tease out if moderate/slow tempos are inherently riskier for clinical populations or if they cause greater hemodynamic responses by virtue of greater TUT per set and proximity to muscular failure.
The collective conclusion from these studies is that faster tempos (e.g., 2/X or 1/0/1/0 seconds) are the safest option for patients with various forms of CVD or for those who are currently in CR. As discussed in Sidebar #2, future research should tease out if moderate/slow tempos are inherently riskier for clinical populations or if they cause greater hemodynamic responses by virtue of greater TUT per set and proximity to muscular failure.
CONCLUSION
When writing RT programs, it is most critical for fitness professionals to prescribe adequate external loads, repetition ranges, and frequency (i.e., weekly training volume) to stimulate positive adaptations for their clients. Although it may be considered an ancillary training variable, repetition tempo offers a unique opportunity for fitness professionals to provide variety and overload for their client's training programs. Pertaining to the general population client, assuming that sets are performed close to muscular failure, there is a wide range of effective repetition durations for hypertrophy (0.5–8 seconds) and strength (<1–20 seconds). When power is the primary goal, there is evidence that 2/2-, 2/1-, and 2/X-second tempos are all effective, but the latter option may be most efficient. We encourage fitness professionals to consider their client's primary training goal and to rotate tempos in a periodized daily, weekly, or monthly manner. When training older clients, there is evidence that controlled (3 seconds) and rapid (X seconds) concentric contractions are effective for developing strength and power, but the latter may be most effective for improving functional performance. For those with CVD, most research has demonstrated that faster tempos (2/X and 1/1 seconds) are safer than moderate and slow tempos because they result in lower hemodynamics and cardiovascular stress. Fortunately, there now are many studies that provide theory-to-practice guidelines for how fitness professionals can incorporate effective tempo training options to maximize outcomes for a variety of populations.
BRIDGING THE GAP
Fitness professionals are always seeking new strategies to make RT programs more enjoyable and effective for their clients, and they manipulate several training variables to accomplish these goals. Repetition tempo presents a newer, evidence-based method for fitness professionals to provide a relevant overload to an RT program, and the repetition tempo should ultimately be selected based on the client's primary goal(s). For the general population client, this can be accomplished by changing repetition tempo daily, weekly, or monthly to cater to specific training goals of hypertrophy, strength, and power. For the elderly client, it is important to stimulate improvements in functional task performance (e.g., sit-to-stand test) by encouraging maximal speed during the concentric phase of motion. To reduce cardiovascular risk for patients with CVD, it is critical for fitness professionals to program faster repetition tempos and to terminate sets far from failure (e.g., RPE = 11–13).
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